INTRODUCTION:

Rubber is an important commercial plantation. It has its origin in the Amazon basin and from there it was brought to India and has become popular plantation in the country today. North-eastern India has extensive areas suitable for natural rubber cultivation (Sarkar et. al., 2011).

Governments of north-eastern states have taken numerous initiatives for expansion of rubber cultivation.

Tripura and Assam are the leading rubber producing states in north-eastern India. This region is considered as the non-traditional rubber plantation region (Sarkar, 2010). The first rubber tree was planted in Tripura by the Forest Department of Tripura in 1963. Tripura Forest Development Plantation Corporation Ltd was established in 1970 due to the progress of pilot rubber plantation project. In 1977, the Government of Tripura launched the project for economic settlement of shifting cultivators through rubber plantation. Tripura is the leading rubber-producing state in India after Kerala (Chaudhury et. al., 2023) Rubber plantation is an important commercial plantation in Tripura. Tripura was the first state to introduce rubber plantation in the north-east region. Tripura is the leading rubber manufacturer and the second largest producer of rubber in the country (Sarkar, 2011). The government has established the Tripura Rehabilitation Plantation Corporation in 1982 for rehabilitation of jhumias and the other marginalized cultivators through rubber plantation in the state. Group and Block Plantation schemes was started in 1992 that considered revolution in rubber plantation in the state (Ray and Sarkar, 2016). Tripura is a leading rubber producer state in north east India. It is also known as the 'Second Rubber Capital of India'. Currently, the state contributes about 9.4 percent of the total rubber production of the country and 58 percent of the total rubber production in north-east states (Chaudhury and Sarkar, 2022). The objective of the paper is to study the perception of rubber cultivators on impact of rubber cultivation in Tripura.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES:

The objectives of the research paper are as follows:

· To explore the perceptions of rubber cultivators in Tripura regarding the impact of rubber cultivation on their socio-economic-political and legal rights.

· To assess the impact of rubber cultivation on demographic variables like income, savings patterns, investment capacity, and access to financial institutions for rubber cultivators compared to their previous livelihood (shifting cultivation).

· To evaluate the perceived changes in the standard of living for rubber cultivators, including factors like housing, sanitation, access to electricity and water, and social status

· To compare the perception of rubber cultivators who participated in the rehabilitation program with those who continue practicing shifting cultivation.

METHODOLOGY:

(a) Survey Area: Tripura is the third smallest state in India and the second smallest state in north-eastern India after Sikkim. Nearly seventy percent of its land area is covered with hills and forests. Tribals are the main inhabitants in the selected sample villages of the state.

(b) Sample Size and Sampling Design: The relevant data have been collected from the four undivided districts of the state viz., West Tripura, North Tripura, South Tripura and Dhalai. A total of 600 Jhumia households were selected who previously involved in shifting cultivation activity, but later rehabilitated in rubber cultivation under the “Jhumia Rehabilitation Scheme.” They were selected from the twenty villages of four undivided districts of the state. Five villages are randomly selected from each of these four districts. The thirty sample households are randomly selected from each village. Total sample households selected from the four districts are 600.

(c) Method of Data Collection: The present study is based on primary data. Primary data are collected using the self-administrated questionnaire written in the local language. Primary data are collected through both questionnaire and schedule with the household head or a selected member of the household.

(d) Method of Data Analysis: Data is analysed by the quantitative and qualitative methods comprising of tabulation, likert scale analysis, and text analysis.

(e) Novelty of the paper: This article offers a fresh perspective on the impact of rubber cultivation on socio-economic-political and legal rights in Tripura by focusing on the perceptions of the cultivators themselves.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

Tripura have different tribes with multiple culture. Jhumia families are involve in shifting cultivation. They are facing a lot of problem due to their over dependence on shifting cultivation. Their life is very hard and challenging. Government has been executed schemes for relocation of Jhumias by rubber plantation and other agro-based industries. This scheme was initially through District Administration and later through government agencies.

Rubber plantation is labour-intensive. So more and more tribals have been rehabilitated in such plantation. Tripura Rehabilitation Plantation Corporation was established for the resettlement of tribals through rubber plantation. Rubber Block Plantation scheme was implemented by Rubber Board with the collaboration of the Government of Tripura in 2006. This rehabilitation scheme is considered as a great success in the state and the World Bank has also appreciated this scheme for its outstanding achievement.

Table 1: Perception on Impact of Rubber Plantation on Socio-Economic Development

Opinion	Strongly Agree	Agree	Neutral	Disagree	Strongly Disagree
Income of the family increased after rehabilitation	542 (90.3)	58 (9.6)	0	0	0
Saving pattern of the family improved after rehabilitation	490 (81.6)	110 (18.3)	0	0	0
Rehabilitation has increased the saving capacity	565 (94.2)	35 (5.8)	0	0	0
Rehabilitation has increased the investment capacity	489 (81.5)	111 (18.5)	0	0	0
Rehabilitation has increased the connectivity with financial institution	343 (57.2)	250 (41.2)	7 (1.16)	0	0
Life style of the family improved after rehabilitation	536 (89.3)	64 (10.6)	0	0	0
Social status increased in the society	411 (68.5)	189 (31.5)	0	0	0
Educational level increased in the family after rehabilitation	376 (62.6)	224 (37.3)	0	0	0
Sanitation facilities are improved after rehabilitation	338 (56.3)	262 (43.6)	0	0	0
Drinking water facilities are improved after rehabilitation	387 (64.5)	213 (35.5)	0	0	0
Electricity facilities are improved after rehabilitation	321 (53.5)	258 (43)	21(3.5)	0	0
Banking habits are changed after rehabilitation	312 (52)	250 (41.6)	38 (6.3)	0	0
Better health of women after rehabilitation	216 (36)	352 (58.6)	32 (5.3)	0	0
Better health of children after rehabilitation	223 (37.2)	365 (60.8)	12(2)	0	0
Residential modern household amenities improve after rehabilitation	376 (62.7)	224 (37.3)	0	0	0
Food habits are changed after rehabilitation	213 (35.5)	326 (54.3)	12 (2)	0	0
Consumption pattern are changed after rehabilitation	233 (38.8)	261 (43.5)	98 (16.3)	8 (1.3)	0
Government agencies are worked well for the development of rubber plantation	345 (57.5)	255 (42.5)	0	0	0
Social/ political connectivity are increased after rehabilitation	375 (62.5)	191 (31.8)	34(5.6)	0	0
Locality are developed after rubber plantation	378 (63)	200 (33.3)	22(3.6)	0	0
Rehabilitation has improved their economic rights	432 (72)	168(28)	0	0	0
Rehabilitation has improved their political rights	276 (46)	212 (35.3)	101 (16.8)	11 (1.83)	0
Rehabilitation has improved their social rights	276 (46)	279 (46.5)	34 (5.6)	11 (1.8)	0
Rehabilitation has improved their legal rights	204 (34)	364 (60.6)	32(5.3)	0	0

Source: Field survey (2022). Figure in bracket shows percentage (%)

Table 1 discussed the perception of rubber cultivators on impact of rubber plantation on socio-economic development. It has been found that majority of households claimed that their savings pattern, savings capacity, investment capacity, connectivity with institutions, life style, social status, educational level, sanitation facilities, drinking water facilities, electricity facilities, modern amenities, social/political connectivity, economic rights, political rights, and social rights are improved after their rehabilitation in rubber plantation.

Most of household accepted that their income has been increased after rehabilitation. Income from jhum cultivation was very less. Income was also uncertain. Foodgrain produced from shifting cultivation were not adequate for their subsistence. Situation were changned after rehabilitation. Income from rubber plantation is high compared with the shifting cultivation. Income from rubber plantation is more stable. Income from rubber plantation will continue for 24-26 years after maturity of the trees. Price of rubber wood is high and more useful for furniture. Insurance policy can be adopt by the growers for reducing risk of damages from fire and cyclone.

Majority of households acknowledged that their savings pattern has improved after rehabilitation. Income of jhumias are increased after rehabilitation. During jhum cultivation their income was low and savings potentiality was negligible. During that time if any jhumia earned more income than they generally save the aditional amount as cash in their house. At that time they did not have any bank account to save their money. After rehabilitation, their income status is changed and most of rubber growers have bank account. The savings capacity of shifting cultivation is improved after rehabilitation. Income of jhumias are totally changed after rehabilitation. Previously in jhum cultivation, income was low and it was hard for them to maintain their subsistance living. Their life was like refuge, moving one place to another for cultivation. After rehabilitated in rubber plantation, their income was increased.

The investment capacity of shifting cultivators enhanced after rehabilitation. Income and savings are link with the investment. Investment capacity of rubber growers increased because for their high income and savings. As more lands are utilizing under rubber plantation, income of growers also increase continuously. Rubber growers are investing their money on rubber plantation, house, land, education etc. Investment in rubber plantation gives long-run stable and guaranted income. There is no scope of earing income from the premature rubber plantation (upto 6 years). They can earn from seventh year through collecting of latex. That income will be continue for next nearly 24-26 years. After that growers can sell and rubber wood is very useful for furniture. Majority of households believed that rehabilitation improved their connectivity with institutions. During the shifting cultivation jhumias lived in hills and they were isolate from modern civilization. Children of jhumias were helped their parents in their paddy field. Vey few children were attended the school. After rehabilitation, they are now connected with governmental insitutions. They visits offices for collecting information about the price of rubber, production, marketing, or any other relating with the plantation.

The life style of shifting cultivators were improved after rehabilitation. During the shifting cultivation their lifestyle was simple. They were poor at that time and very hard for them to collect the two square meal. Large proportion of their income they were spent on food. Expenditure on cloth and other items were very negligible. Their life were depends on nature and cultivation was also affected by rainfall, climate etc. After joining in rubber plantation their lifestyle is totally changed. Although they are spending higher proportion of income on food, but expenditure on education, cloth, entertainment, and others are also increased. Most of them are now availing the modren amenities. The social status of shifting cultivators are improved after rehabilitation. During the shifting cultivation, they were lived in isolate way. People were neglected them and they were also fear to go outside the village. They always tried to stay in their villige or hills. After rehabilitation, stuation is changed. Their income increased and they are more empowered. Their importance in the society is increased. They are not isolate like as previous.

The educational level of shifting cultivators are increased after rehabilitation. During the shifting cultivation, children were helped their parents in cultivation. Majority of children did not attend the school. Geographycally location, family background, financial conditions, social background, and availability of school were the prominent factors. Situation is changed after the rehabilitation. People are now more aware about the importance of education. More number of children are now going to school. In many families, students have private teacher for assisting their study. Adult education is popular among rubber cultivators. The sanitation facilities of shifting cultivators are improved after rehabilitation. During shifting cultivation, kacha toilet was common and many families did not any toilet. But, after rubber plantation, situation is changed. Most of the family have packa toilet.

The drinking water facilities of shifting cultivators are improved after rehabilitation. During the jhum cultivation, majority of jhumias were collected drinking water from river, pond, natural water store. Availability of tubewell and water supply were very less. After rehabilitation, sources of drinking water is changed. Now tubewell and water supply are more popular among them. People are more aware about the water-born diseases. The electricity facilities of shifting cultivators are increased after rehabilitation. During shifting cultivation, very few families have electricity. The main reason is the geographical location. They were scattered in the hills. They depends on kerosine for lighting and many times firewood also used when kerosine was not available. After rehabilitation, villages are connected with electricity. Government also distributed solar light among people. Rubber cultivators also purchased solar light by own expences.

The health conditions of women are improved after rehabilitation. During the shifting cultivation, health conditions of women were not good. Women plays inprotant role in tribal society. Women are involved in shifting cultivation and sell produced crops in local market. Modern medical facilities were absent in the jhumias villages. Their villages were isolated from towns and road connectivity with towns were not well. They generally depends on kabiraj or traditional harbal medicine. Many women were die during the delivery period and many after onward complexity. Health conditions of women improved after rehabilization. Women mortality rate decreased for better health facilities. Primary health centre’s playing vital role for pre-delivery information and health care. The health conditions of children are improved after rehabilitation. During shifting cultivation, infant mortality rate was very high. Children was died from various common diseases and vaccinization rate was also poor. Child mortality rate also decreased after rehabilitation. As they are connected with the outsiders, they are more aware about various diseases and its causes. They are also using the facilities of primary health centre or hospitals of government.

Majority of households agreed that they have better amenities after rehabilitated in rubber cultivation. Modern amenities were nearly missing during the shifting cultivation. Electricity, drinking water, and sanitary toilet were nearly absent. Geographical location and backwardness are the main causes. Kerocine was the key fuel for lighting. Firefood is the fuel for cooking. Pond, and stream are the major source of drinking water. Conditions of roads were very bad. After rehabilitation, rubber cultivators have better modern amenities. Their villages are now well connected with the electricity, water supply and roads. Most of them have pakka toilet. Children are now going to school regularly. The food habits of shifting cultivators are changed after rehabilitation. During the shifting cultivation, they depends on the foodgrains produced from paddy land and forest resources. As their income was less, they purchased less produccts from market. Their needs were very limited. But after rubber plantation, as income increased now they can purchase variety of goods from market.

The consumption patterns of shifting cultivators are changed after rehabilitation. During the shifting cultivation, their needs were limited. They were happy what they collected from forest. Forest provided them firewood, meat, timber, honey, vegetable, bamboo, etc. From local river, or stream, they collect fish. Boil vegitables were the common food and uses of oil was negligible. After rubber plantation, choice and pattern of food are changed. They purchase variety of products from the market. They have the modern amenities, like as electricity, water supply, toilet etc. Majority of households accepted that government agencies are working well for development of rubber plantation. They assist jhumia families for rehabilitation in rubber plantation. They always encourge jhumias for rubber plantation.

Social or political connectivity of shifting cultivators are increased after rehabilitation. During shifting culttivation, they were more isolated. They moved from one place to another place for cultivating land. They were not generally contact with outsiders. They were not more interest in politics and always busy with their own work. Their life pattern changed after joining in rubber plantation. They are more involved in politics. Majority of households accepted that their locality are developed after rehabilitation. Life was challenging during shifting cultivation. Area were isolated and road connectivity was poor. But situation is changed after rehabilitation. Surroundling areas of rubber plantation are more develop because of good connectivity of road. Villages are more connected with electricity, water supply, road, transport etc.

The economic rights of shifting cultivators are increased after rehabilitation. Income from shifting cultivation was low and also unstable. Women involved in both cultivation and house activities, but it was not acknowledge more. Poverty was a common fact in the jhumia villages. After shifting to rubber plantation, economic econditions of jhumias are improved. They are economically empowered. Women contribution in work are more acknowledge. The political rights of shifting cultivators are increased after rehabilitation. Shifting cultivators did not have any interest in politics. They were busy with their own activities and they were not feel comfortable with the outsiders. After joining in rubber plantation, their social status is changed. They are more interrects with government officials for receiving assistance.

The social rights of shifting cultivators are increased after rehabilitation. During shifting cultivation, cultivators were more isolated. They were ignored by the other peoples of the society. After rehabilitation the situation is changed. They are more empowered than before. They knowns various rights entitled to them. The legal rights of shifting cultivators are increased after rehabilitation. During jhum cultivation, jhumias were not aware about laws entitlled to them. They had lack of information and many times it was not understandable to them. Jhumias are less educated and they also fear legal matters. After rubber plantation, they knows the importance of law in daily life. They are more aware of legal issues. They are now more empowered.

CONCLUSION:

This study investigated the perceptions of rubber cultivators in Tripura on the impact of rubber cultivation on their socio-economic-political and legal rights. The findings, based on the survey of 600 households previously involved in shifting cultivation, revealed a positive perception of the rehabilitation program. Majority of household’s believed that rubber plantation improved their socio-economic and legal rights. It increased rights of the women and children. It reduced the drop-out rates of the children in education. Education level of children also increased after rehabilitated in rubber plantation. Majority of shifting cultivators claimed that their savings pattern, savings capacity, investment capacity, connectivity with institutions, life style, social status, educational level, sanitation facilities, water facilities, electricity facilities, modern amenities, social/political connectivity, economic rights, and social rights are enhanced after rehabilitation in rubber plantation.

This research offers a valuable contribution on focusing on the subjective experiences of rubber cultivators. By directly exploring their perceptions, this study goes beyond economic data or program descriptions to provide insights into the program’s effectiveness from the beneficiaries’ perspectives. The findings suggests that rubber cultivation, as implemented through the Tripura rehabilitation program, has a positive influence on the socio-economic-political and legal rights of the participating cultivators. This program offers a promising approach for improving the lives of shifting cultivators while promoting sustainable development in the region. Further research is recommended to explore the program’s long-term effects and its potential for replication in other contexts.

This study acknowledges limitations such as relying solely on self-reported data and not including a comparison group of non-rehabilitated cultivators. Future research could address these limitations by incorporating objective measures of socio-economic development and conducting longitudinal studies to assess the program’s long-term impact.

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Received on 25.06.2024 Revised on 20.01.2025

Accepted on 05.05.2025 Published on 29.07.2025

Available online from August 05, 2025

Asian Journal of Management. 2025;16(3):233-238.

DOI: 10.52711/2321-5763.2025.00035

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Creative Commons License.